chapter4&5&6 句法语义语用
2025-09-27 21:45:09 0 举报AI智能生成
在讨论篇章结构时，章节4通常阐述了句子的句法构建原则，比如主语、谓语的规则和句子成分之间的关系。第5章可能会更深入地探讨语义方面，解释句子中词语的意义以及它们如何结合来表达完整的含义。最后，第6章可能会专注于语用学，这是研究语言使用中含义的学科，包括话语分析、语言交际以及语境对于意义的影响。 例如，在研究句法时，我们会学习主谓宾（SVO）结构，确保句子成分的正确排列顺序；在语义学习中，我们会探索具体词汇的多义性以及词汇间如何通过预设和含义关联来增强语句的表达力；而在语用方面，我们会理解语境对词语解释的影响，比如“今天天气真好”在不同的语境中可以表达出赞美天气、邀请外出或者表达无聊等多样含义。这些章节的内容共同构成了语言学研究的基础，帮助学习者从形式规则到实际应用全方位理解语言的复杂性。
作者其他创作
大纲/内容
definition
syntax is the study of the rules governing the ways different constiuents are combined to form sentences in a language, or the study of the interrelationshios between elements in sentence structures
Syntactic rules
syntactic relations
positional relation
defintion:
positional relation, or word order(词序), refers to the sequential arrangement of words an a language. I f the words in a sentence fail to occur in a fixed order required by the convention of a language, one tends to produce an utterance either ungrammatical or nonsensical at all.
1.positional relations are a manifestation of one aspect of " syntagmatic relations（横组合关系）" observed by F.de Saussure.
2.In some elementary linguistic textbooks, they are also called Horizontal relations（横向关系） or simply Chain relations (链状关系)
3.Interestingly, word order is among the three basic ways ( word order词序, genetic亲缘划分 and areal classifications区域划分) to classify languages in the world.
4.In this way of classification , there are totally six possible types of language, they are SVO(English，古代汉语，法语，西班牙),VSO（阿拉伯语，希伯来语）,SOV（现代汉语，日语，韩语，土耳其语）,OVS,OSV, and VOS.
relation of substitutability
definition:
1.the relation of substitutability refers to classes or sets of words substitutable for each other grammatically in sentences with the same structure. 2.secondly,it refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
1.this is what Saussure called Associative relations（联想关系）, or in Hjemslev's term, Paradigmatic relations(纵聚合关系).
2.To make it more understandable, they are called vertical relations（纵向关系） or Choice relations（选择关系）.
smoking/singing/sleeping is not allowed in the room. The [tall man/ tallest boy/ pretty girl] smiles.
relation of Co-Occurrence
definition:
By the relation of Co-Occurence one means that words of different sets of clauses may permit, or require, the occurrence of a word of another set or class to form a sentence or a particular part of sentence.
1.for instance, a nominal phrase can be preceded by a determiner and adjectives and followed by a verbal phrase.
2.examples
preceded by
NP
followed by
A pretty
girl
smiles
The tallest
boy
cries
The african
man
sings
...
breathes,...
3.Thus ,relations of co-occurence partly belong to syntagmatic relations, partly to paradigmatic relations.
grammatical construction and its constituents
grammatical construction
definition:
1.grammatical construction or construct(建构) can mean any syntactic construct which is assigned one or more conventional functions in a language, together with whatever is linguisitically conventionalized about its contribution to the meaning or use the construct contains. 2.On the level of syntax, we distinguish for any construction in alanguage its external and internal properties.
classification
external syntax
the external syntax of a construction refers to the properties of the construction as a whole, that is to say, anything speakers know about the construction that is relevant to the larger syntactic contexts in which it is welcome.
For instance, the different terms such as clausal type(小句类型), phrasal type（短语类型） are assigned to the properties of the constructions respectively.
internal syntax
The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction's "make up", with the terms such as subject(主), predicate(谓), object(宾), determiner(定), noun(名词) used in syntax
immediate constituents
constituents
definition:
constituents is a term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit
immediate constituents
definition
If two constituents,in the case of the example down, B and C are joined to form a hierarchically higher sonstituent A,then B and C are said to be the immediate constituents of A.
Immediate constituent analysis
definition:
1.This tree contains three nodes. the top most node, A, is the mother of the two lower nodes, B and C are daughters of the same mother, and so we refer to them as Sister nodes. 2.The simple tree in the above represnts a and the other of category C, occurring in that order.
To dismantle a grammatical construction in this way is called Immediate constituent analysis（直接成分分析法） or IC analysis.
tree diagram
bracketing
endocentric and exocentric constructions
endocentric
definition:
endocentric construction is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents,ie, a word or a group of words, which serves as a definable centre or head.
usually noun phrase, verb phrase and adjective phrase belong to endocentric types because the constituent items are subordinate to head.
types
definition:
endocentric constructions fall into two main types, depending on the relation between constituents: coordination and subordination.
coordination and subordination
coordination
H
coordination is a common syntactic pattern in English and other languages formed by grouping together two or more categories of the same type with the help of a conjunction such as and, but, and or.
And these two or more words or phrases or clauses have equivalent syntactic status, each of the separate constituents can stand for the original construction functionally.
such a structure is usually considered to be doubly headed, since both of the conjoined sentence,two (or more) S constituents occur as daughters and co-heads of a higher S.
One property coordination reveals is that there is no limit on the umber of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction.Thus,in which the subject NP contains four smaller NPs prior to the underlined conjunction andone after it.Therefore , coordination occupies its own place in the creativity of language:ie.recursiveness.
D
4 principle
1. first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories that can appear prior to the conjunction
并列无限制
2.second, a category at any level (a head or an entire XP) can be coordinated
不同级别可并列
3. third, coordinated categories must be of the same type
必须同范畴
4. fourth，the category type of the coordinate phrase is identical to the category type of elements being conjoined.
类别相同
rule:X → X*Con X
subordination
subordination refers to the process or result of linking linguistic units so that they have different syntactic status, one being dependent upon the other, and usually a constituent of the other.
Thus the subordinate constituents are words which modify the head, they can be called modifiers(修饰语).
certainly, clauses can be used as subordinate constituents. The three basic types of subordinate clauses are:
complement clauses
adjunct (or adverbial) clauses
relative clauses
Since all clauses contain a noun phrase subject and a finit verb phrase predicate, you can expand their noun phrases and verb phrases,and you can rearrange and conjoin them, in this sense,subordination ,as well as coordination, can take part in the recursiveness of language in several ways.
exocentric
definition:
exocentric construction is just the opposite of endocentric construction. It refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is there is no definable "centre" or "head" inside the group.
usually includes basic sentence(基本句),prepositional phrase（PP）,predicate(V+N) construction(动宾), and connective (be + complement) construction（系表）.
complex syntactic movements/transformation
Auxiliary movement
two steps
first step, the usual XP rule is used to form a structure in which the axuiliary occupies it normal position in Infl, between the subject and the VP.
second step in forming a yes no question requires a transformation, a special type of rule taht can move an element from oneposition to another
inversion
In the case we considering , a transformation known as inversion moves the auxiliary from the Infl position to a position to the left of the subject.
rule
move Infl to the left of the subject NP
Move Infl to C
that+thatP 可以无限循环，递归
Do insertion
linguists circumvent the problem of form a yes no question without an overt Infl sentence by adding the special auxiliary verb do
rule
Do insertion
insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position.
deep strcture and surface structure
deep structure
the first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization properties, is called deep structure (or D-structure)
surface structure
the second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called surface structure (or S- structure)
rules
Wh- movement
easy flase
right
Move a wh phrase to the specifier position under CP
move A and constraints on transformations
inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position.
classes
syntactic function
The syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguisitc pattern in which it is used.Including subjects, objects, predicators, modofiers, complements,etc.
classes
subject
refers to one of the nouns in the nominative case.The typical example can be found in Latin, where subject is always in norminative case, such as pater and filius in examples.
Expressions like active or passive form identify particular semantic roles,namely agent（施事） and patient(受事). the subject is not always an agent, and the patient is not always an object.
another classification
Grammatical subject
since the core object noun (John in this case) sits in the slot before the verb in the passive, it is called the grammatical subject
Logical subject
for the original object noun phrase occupies the grammatical space before a verb, the space that a subject normally occupies the core subject (A dog) ,now the object of a preposition (by a dog) is called the logical subject
topic
another traditional definition of the subject is "what the sentence is about", Again works not for all sentences. this is called the subject as topic.
signs of English subject
1.Word order: Subject ordinarily precedes the verb in statement
2.Pro forms: The first and third person pronouns in English appear in a special form when the pronoun is a subject.
3.Agreement with verb: In the simple present tense, an -s is added when a third person subject is singular.
4.Tag question: A Tag question is used to seek confirmation of a statement.
5.Conten question: is the subject is replaced by a question word(who or what), the rest of the sentence remains unchanged.But when ant other element of the sentence is replaced by a question word, an auxiliary verb must appear before the subject.If the basic sentence does not contain an auxiliary verb, we must insert did or do(es) after the question word.
predicate
refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in a binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.It usually expresses actions processes and states that relate to the subject.
As predicate includes constituents such as verb, object complement, etc, people find it illogical to use a class term, namely, the verb, in grammatical analysis of a functional nature.
The word predicator is suggested for verb or verbs included in a predicate.
object
object is also a term hard to define. Since traditionally, subject can be defined as the doer of an action, object may refer to the "receiver" or "goal" fo an action, and it is further classified into direct object and indirect object.
In some inflecting languages, object is marked by case labels: the accusative case for direct object, and the dative case case for indirect object.In English, object is recognised by tracing relation to word order(after the verb and preposition) and by inflections (of pronouns)
chomsky halliday suggest that object refers to such an item that it can become subject in a passive transformation.
the relation between classes and functions
classes and functions determine each other,but not in any one to one relation.A class item can perform several functions.For instance a noun or a nominal phrase can function as the subject ,object, modifier, adverbial and complement of a sentence.
similarly a function can be fulfilled by serveral classes.Foe instance, the subject of a sentence can be realized by a noun, pronoun, numeral, infinitive, etc.
category
definition:
H
the term in some approaches refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, eg noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb,phrase, etc.
more specifically, it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense,aspect, voice,etc. In this section we are talking about the grammatical categories in the second sense.
D
category refers to a group of linguisitic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.
major lexical categories
noun
verb
adjective
proposition
minor lexical categories
determiner
degree words
quanlifier
auxiliary
conjunction
how to define a word's category
meanings
book,书
inflections
friendship
distribution
a/the +girl:D+N
number
number is a grammatical category for the analysis of word classes displaying observed in nouns, and there are only two forms: singular and plural.
number is also reflected in the inflections of pronouns and verbs
In other language,like french,the manifestation of number can also be found in adjectives and articles.
gender
Gender displays such contrasts as "masculine: feminine: neuter" "animate: inanimate" etc. for the analysis of word classes.
When word items refer to the sex of real world entities, we are talking about natural gender,The opposite is grammatical gender.
Though there is a statistical correlation between natural gender and grammatical gender, the assignment may seem quite arbitrary in many cases
English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns,and they mainly of the natural gender type;In french, gender, is manifested also both in adjectives and articles.
case
The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.
In latin grammar, cases are based on variations in the morphological forms of the word, and are given the terms "accusative, nominative, dative"
There are five cases in ancient Greek and eight i Sankrit. Finnish has as many as fifteen formally distinct cases in nouns,each with wits own syntactic function.
In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently corresponds to a combination of preposition and noun, and it is realised in three channels:1. inflection 2. following a preposition,3.word order .
agreement
Agreement or concord may be defined as the requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classes that stand in specificsyntactic relationship with one another,shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category (or categories)
the features of the head noun which may be reflected in the agreeing dependent forms are what we have described above: gender,number,and case.
phrase, clause and sentence
phrase
definition:
1. Phrase is a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject predicate structure typical of clauses. 2. it is seen as part of a structureal hierarchy,positioned between clause and word.
therefore, first, a phrase must be a group of words which form a constituent.
second, a phrase is lower on the grammatical hierarchy than clause.
More precisely, simple clauses may (and usually do) contain phrases,but simple phrase do not (in general contain clauses.)
distinguishment
phrase
a phrase is different from group in the domain of systemic functional grammar, whereas a group is an extension of a word, a phrase is a contraction of a clause.
the three tallest girls;has been doing;to the door
word group
word groups consequently have a distinct rank. The groups recognized are nominal, verbal,and adverbial(corresponding to noun phrase,verb phrase, and adverb phrase in other theories) ,plus conjunction group and preposition group.
right behind; all along
phrase category
types
noun phrase
verb phrase
adjective phrase
prepositional phrase
whether formed of one or more than one word, they consist of two levels,phrase level and word level as exemplified below.
The XP rule:XP→(specifier) X (complement)
phrase elements
specifiers
definition:
specifiers have both special semantic and syntactic roles.
semantically, they help make more precise the meaning of head.
Syntactically, they typically mark a phrase boundary
types
determiner
N
the book
qualifier
V
always fail
degree word
A
less interesting
P
almost in
complements
definition:
complements are themselves phrases and provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of head. They are attached to the right of the head in English.
The information about a word's complement is included in the head and termed subcategorization(次范畴化). Subcategorization information together with the phrase structure rules ensures that lexical items appear in the appropriate types of tree structures.
examples
nervous about the exam
types
complementizers 补语化成分
words which introduce the sentence complement are termed complementizers (Cs)
complement clause补语从句
The sentence introduced by the complementizer is called a complement clause
complement phrase 补语短语
the whole "that she will win" part in the sentence is called a complement phrase (CP)
matrix clause
the construction in which the comllement phrase ia embedded is called matrix clause.
same as CP, there are also AP,NP,PP
modifiers
definition:
which soecifies optionally expressible properties of head
types
AP
precedes the head
a very careful girl
PP
follows the head
open with care
AdvP
precedes or follows the head
read carefully; carefully read
rule
XP → (Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)
clause
definiton:
Aconstituent with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence, is a clause. Clause can also be classified into finite and nonfinite clauses, the latter including the traditional infinitive phrase, participial phrase, and gerundial phrase.
to leave early; for a man to be free; Having finished their task.
sentence
H
Sentence is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought. Bloomfield defined the sentence as "one not included by virtue of any grammatical construction in any larger linguistic form"
classification
sentence
simple
not simple
complex
compound
functional approach
sentence
indicative
interrogative
yes/no
wh-
declarative
imperative
jussive
optative
D
rule
S → NP+VP
beyond the sentence
text linguisitcs & discourse analysis
discourse
refers to spoken language
text
means the written documents
A text is more than a random set of words,it should be overtly connected and covertly cohered: it shows connectedness
sentential connection
at textual level, there are two important perspectives to look at the connectedness: cohesion and coherence
cohesion 衔接
cohesion is a concept to do with discourse or text rather than with syntax, it refers to relations of meaning that exist within the text, and defines it as a text.Discoursal/textual cohesiveness can be realized by employing various cohesion markers
types
reference
two linguistic elements are related in what they refer to
substitution
a linguistic element is not repeated but is replaced by a substitution item
ellipsis
one of the identical linguistic elements is omitted
conjunction
a semantic relation is explicitly marked.
lexical collocation
two elements share a lexical field.
coherence
the connectedness on langauge users establishing coherence by actively relating the different information units in the text.
The connectedness of discourse is a characteristic of the mental representation of the text rather than of the text itself.
recursiveness
definition:
recursiveness has become an umbrella term,under which may be brought together several important linguistic phenomena such as coordination and subordination(并列和从属),conjoining and embedding（连接和嵌入）, hypotactic and paratactic（主从和并联）.
classification
conjoining
conjoinning refers to the process where one clause is coordinated or conjoined with another..The sentences made up in this way canbe understood as instances of coordination.
embedding
Embedding refers to the means by which one clause is included in the sentence(main clause) in syntactic subordination.
three basic types
complements
adjunct(or adverbial)
relative clauses
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