语言学复习 chapter 3 morphology 形态学
2025-09-20 22:38:15 0 举报AI智能生成
形态学是语言学的一个分支，专注于单词的内部结构及其构成。在形态学中，我们区分词根（词汇的基本形式）和词缀（添加到词根上以改变其意义或词性的元素）。词缀可以进一步分为前缀（加在词根之前），后缀（加在词根之后），中缀（插入词根中间）和环绕词缀（置于词根两端）。词汇可以通过派生（通过添加派生词缀来形成新词）和屈折（改变形式以表达语法功能，如时态或数量）进行形态变化。形态学研究还包括了解不规则形态变化以及构词过程，例如合成（两个或多个词根合并形成新词）和缩略词（简化词的缩写形式）。文件类型的形态学则涉及如何使用词缀和其他语法标记来区分文本类型，例如报告、论文或诗歌，每种类型都通过特有的修饰语来强调和增强其语义。本章内容涉及了形态学的基础知识，对理解语言的结构和创造过程至关重要。
作者其他创作
大纲/内容
word词
What is word?什么是词
morpheme 词素
reasons
1.words are concerned with meanings
2.words are not always the smallest units of meaning, as sometimes a single word such as "teacher" can be further divided into more than one smaller semantic unit
3.the term "morpheme", is especially important in helping us define "word"
definition
A morpheme can be understood as the minimal unit of language that has its own meaning. the smallest unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.
it is neither a meaning nor a stretch of sound, but a meaning and a stretch of sound joined together
morph语素 sound
people use the term morph to distinguish sound of a morpheme from the entire morpheme
For example,the English plural and possessive morphemes may be said to share a single morph, the suffix /-s/
word
definition
a word contains one or more morphemes that can stand on its own, word as the smallest free form found in language.
category
simple word
A word that involves only one morpheme ,like boy or teach,is a simple word
complex word
while a complex word , like hoyhood or teacher,contains more than one morpheme.
affix
lexeme 词位
definition
A lexeme can therefore be understood as a family of words that differ only in their grammatical endings
example
lexeme word forms
buy
bought, buy, buying,
student
students,student
I
me
Allomorphy同位语素变体现象
allomorphs语素变体
which involves phonologically distinct variants of the same abstract morpheme in terms of meaning or grammatical function.such phonologically distinct variants are allomorphs.
in-,ir-,il-, im- are allomorphs.They obey the same word formation rule and share the same semantic information: 1.each is attached to an adjective as a prefix,2. and each has the meaning of "negative"
/-s/,/-z/, /-iz/,为一组allomorphs 有相同的词素 -s
/a/, /an/ 为一组allomorphs 有相同的词素 a
content word & function word实义词和功能词
content word 实义词open class words
definition：content word express concrete meaning
category 词类
noun
a typical noun often refers to a concrete object in the world (like tiger and panda), although it can also denote abstract ideas(like impression and justice)
verb
a typical verb often describes a dynamic activity (like drink and beat), although it can also describe a psychological state(like love and worry).
adjective
An adjective provides information on the properties of an object (like handsome and cold )
adverb
while an adverb, often modifying a verb,specifies the manner,time or location of an action
An adverb can be derived from an adjective by the addition of the morpheme-ly,but it is uncommon that an adverb does not contain an adjectival base.
function word 功能词closed class words
definition:they undertake the task of fulfilling grammatical functions,while concrete meaning is not an essential part of their properties.That is,function words constitute an integral part of the grammar of a language.since grammatical functions are more or less invariant, very few new function words will be added into the lexicon of a language.
category 词类
complementiser
this word is used here not for the sake of conveying concrete content,but fulfilling a grammatical function.(like that or whether)
pronoun
which is used to refer to an entity mentioned in the preceding sentence or is known in the context.(like I, we,you he she they)
article
(like a/an, the)
demonstractive
(like this ,that,these,those)
auxiliary verb
(like will,do,be, have)
the definition of the category auxiliary verb completely relies on its grammatical behaviour.1.an auxiliary verb always precedes a verb. 2. an auxiliary verb can be placed in the initial position of a sentence to form a yes/no question.
preposition
(like in, on, before, behind, of)
A preposition is often used to express the relationship between an object or an event and a location, although sometimes the relationship denoted by a preposition can be very abstract.
conjunction
(like and, but, or, either...or... neither...nor...)
conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases or clauses.
types of morpheme 语/词素的种类
1.
free morpheme
definition: morphemes like popular and teach, which on their own can stand as words are called free morpheme/ A morpheme which can be a word by itself is called a free morpheme.
bound morpheme
definition: morphemes like -ise and -er that cannot function as words by themselves are bound morphemes.
structure of word
root
when a word is formed, there is always a morpheme that serves as the root, which is the base of the word . like"enable-able","astronomy- astro"
some roots like astro- and ling- cannot function as words independently, are bound roots
affix
definition: A bound morpheme that can not serve as a root.
prefix
if a bound morpheme that cannot serve as a root,precedes other morphemes in a word, it is a prefix
en-
enable, enlighten, enstrust, enlarge
pre-
predict, precursor, precede, precaution
un-
unable, unhappy, unlike, unselfish
dis-
dislike, disbelieve,disadvantage, dismantle
re-
rebuild, reconstruct, recollect, recall
suffix
a bound morpheme that cannot serve as aroot,and if it follows other morphemes,it is a suffix
-en
redden, flatten, lighten, deepen
-ise
berbalise, naturalise, fossilise, Americanise
-ing
doing, reading, walking, feeling
-s
books, boys,cups,tables
-er
smaller, greater, bigger, hotter
infix中缀
infixes are inserted between a morpheme, instead of being placed before or after a morpheme. eg Tagalog,Bontoc
circumfix框缀
A circumfix is like an exponent of a prefix and a suffix simultaneously. eg Dutch
stem
when a root is combined with an extra bound morpheme(affix), a stem is formed, which can be either an indenpent word,or a base to which an extra bound morpheme can be added.
stem = root + bound morpheme
examples
root
nature
stem
natural (noun+ affix -al)
stem
naturalise (adjective + affix -ise)
the term morphology to refer to the part of the grammar that is concerned with word formation and word structure/ how are morphemes combined to form a new lexeme or word form?
Morphological processes 形态变化
derivation派生构词
derivation
refers to the morphological process of forming a lexeme by attaching an affix to an existing lexeme
affixes involved in derivation like -ion are derivational affixes or derivational morphemes
derivation of nouns:V---N,A---N,N---N. derivation of verbs: A---V, N---V, V---V derivation of adjectives: V---A, N---A, A---A. derivation of adverbs : A---Adv.
Categorisation 词类化
Most of the above derivational processes involve the change of category of the base lexeme, and thus this process is also called categorisation（词类化）.
In such a process, the attached affix is called a categorisers(词类标记), which carriesnan important piece of grammatical information,ie. the categorial feature（此类特征）.
conversion 转类
Closely related to derivation is the process of conversion, which also yields a new lexem.
the above examples that the shifting of a category ,ie, the process of categorisation, is often realised by the attachment of an affix, or categoriser.
But sometimes, categorisation can take place without affixation, and when this happens, we call this type of categorisation "zero-derivation"(零派生), or "conversion"（转类）
N---V: email A---V :cool V---N: kick
compounding复合构词
definition:like derivation, compounding also yields new lexemes,but these two lexeme formation strategies differ in that the compounding involves the combination of lexemes,instead of a lexeme and an affix,like in the word "blackmail", both parts are lexemes and no affix is involved in the formation.thus,blackmail is thus a compound(复合构词), or compound word（复合词）.
types
attributive compounds 修饰型复合词
An attributive compound is made of two lexemes, with one modifying the other,ie. one being the modifier and the other being the head
windmill, bookstore, lowlife, coffe table
coordinative compound 并列型复合词
In coordinative compound, the two subcomponents are equal, without one modifying the other
prince-consort(王夫，一个既是王子又是伴侣的人), teacher-student
subordinative compounds 从属型复合词
a subordinative compound is when one of the subcomponents is understood to be the argument of the other.
truck-driver,tactor-driving, cigarette-smoking, can-opener,coffee-grinder
argument
In a sentence, the subject and the object ( if there is one ) are the arguments of the verb
another classification
synthetic compounds合成性复合词
such above compounds are also called synthetic compounds, because in addition to compounding, the process of word formation also involves derivation ( from verb to noun,eg,from drive to driver)
root compounds根复合词
the other types of compounds, such as the compounds in the above examples, which only involve the process of compounding, are also called root compounds.(windmill,and blackmail,etc.)
meaning of compounds
The meaning of some compounds is transparent, which seems to be the composition of the semantic components of the sub-lexemes, just like the composition of the meaning of words in a phrase. Synthetic compounds are of this type: as we have introduced above, the first sub-lexeme is taken as the patient of the verbal lexeme.
But the meaning of come compounds is not compositional,for examples,blackmail.
inflection屈折构词
definition: The morphological process of inflection does not give rise to a new lexeme, but only yields different word forms of same lexeme.
Inflectional affixes/morphemes
The affixes attached in this inflectional process are therefore inflectional affixes or inflectional morphemes.
examples
-s(third-person singular present)
he likes sth
-ed (past tense)
he liked sth
-ing(progressive)
he is reading sth
-en(past participle)
he has eaten sth
-s(plural)
he has three apples
-er(comparative)
he works harder than him
-est(superlative)
he works the hardest.
-ai,-as,-a,-ons,-ez,-ont将来时(法)
minor morphological processes次要形态变化
coinage词语新造
which refers to the introduction of a completely new word: TV , computer, iPhone,were once not in the lexiicon of the language, simply because such things had not been invented then.
Blending 截搭
Blending（截搭） is another way of forming a new lexeme, which is a process of combing parts of two lexemes which themeselves are not morphemes.2.the words formed from this process are blends(截搭词).
brunch is the "br-" in breakfast and "-unch" in lunch,which means the meal between breakfast and lunch,a late morning meal eaten instead of breakfast and lunch.
mortor+ hotel ---motel; simultaneous+ broadcast---simulcast; smoke+ fog---smog; spoon+ fork---spork; situation+ comedy---sitcom
Back formation 逆构
Backformation happens when native speakers perceive an originally simple word,ie, a word that is monomorphemic,as one consisting of more than one morpheme
like:surveillance---surveil; it is reanalysed as a word derived via the attachment of the suffix-ance to the verb surveil; burglar---burgle; peddler---peddle; editor---edit
Clipping 截短
clipping is another process of forming a new word, which involves the shortening of an existing longer word.
examples
fridge
refrigerator
demo
demonstration
math
mathematics
lab
laboratory
prof
professor
info
information
Acronym 缩略
Acronyms are words created by combining the first letters of the words of a phrase or a name: WTO, NATO, TOEFL, IELTS
some acronyms can be pronounced as a word (such as NATO,TOEFL,and IELTS), and some are pronounced as individual letters ( such as WTO)
Although acronyms are often used to refer to any abbreviation formed via the combination of initial letters,some dictionaries make a distinction between acronyms and initialism(首字母缩写词), with the acronyms only referring to items like NATO, and TOEFL pronnounced as individual words, and the initialisms referring to items like WTO that are abbreviations consisting of individual letters pronounced separately.
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